The monistic materialism of utter materiality lands us in a dualistic concept of matter and consciousness. The Samkhya philosophy also propounds the same theme. They maintain consciousness as a separate self-identical principle - a distinct being, Purusha, as they call it. It has no connection with Prakriti which is matter. People felt a difficulty of their own in identifying consciousness with matter. So they created a philosophy of their own called Samkhya - "I cannot be the same as the body, and the body cannot be the same as me; consciousness is not matter, matter is not consciousness; yet both exist; I can see the body, and I can see that I have intelligence, also. So, intelligence is different from matter; Purusha is different from Prakriti."

This may be considered as an advance. When two parties cannot reconcile themselves with each other in any way whatsoever, they say, "You mind your business, I mind my business." So, Purusha tells Prakriti, and Prakriti tells Purusha, "We mind our own businesses; we have no connection with each other; otherwise, we will come in conflict with each other, every day." Matter and consciousness fight with each other, but they would not want to continue this fight for ever. So, Samkhya came to make a truce of this war, and declared, "Peace, and no fight hereafter. Purusha is Purusha; Prakriti is Prakriti. Let them have their own positions, and have no connection with each other."

But this is a difficult thing, again. Two enemies are always enemies, even if they do not speak to each other. They will bear a grudge for ever. And, this system of duality, utterly isolating one camp from another, will not last for a long time. A difficulty arose, the truce was broken, and the two opponents would not occupy their own positions like that. Prakriti would not occupy its own position independent of Purusha, nor Purusha would exist independent of Prakriti. They clashed with each other. So, from one difficulty arose another difficulty. A problem cannot be solved by the introduction of another problem. But this is what has happened. The utter materialism of the monistic attitude to matter failed on account of the difficulty in explaining the position of consciousness in the universe. Samkhya, though it appeared as a solution, ended in nothing, like the formation of the League of Nations in days gone by, which did nothing, and ended in nothing finally. For the time being, it appeared that everything was in peace. But, that peace was broken by the confrontation of Purusha with Prakriti, and Prakriti with Purusha. They created a new genie, a kind of a goblin, as it were, viz., the individual Jiva, as they called, the mixture of Purusha and Prakriti, a little of consciousness and a little of matter, by an imaginary relationship brought about between the two principles.

Samkhya is only a restatement of the same problem of the materialists. It is not a solution of the problem. They have only varnished the problem and put a little gild outside. But, inside, there is this iron core of the very same problem of materiality. It is surprising where the Samkhya has landed man. It has covered him, blindfolded him, made him a fool, as it were, and compelled him to think that everything is fine, while things are as bad as they were. Nothing is all right, everything has been in the same condition. The problem in the concept of materiality is the relationship between matter and consciousness. Now the relationship between Prakriti and Purusha needs explanation. What is the use of giving different names? The problem is the same. Previously what is called matter, is now called Purusha; and what is earlier called consciousness is now called Purusha. A difference in terminology is not a solution to the problem. So, the doctrine of Samkhya is nothing but a materialistic doctrine itself, which has been reshaped by a camouflage of a so-called spirituality of Purusha, even as the materialistic science and philosophy conceded the existence of consciousness, but could not keep it aside, away from matter, nor could it bring it into the camp or the bosom of matter itself.

What is the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti? There is no relationship absolutely. There cannot be any relationship, because they are two utterly different elements. If they are utterly different, how does one know that they are different? Who tells that they are different things? Does Purusha say this, or does Prakriti say this? Who is making this statement that Purusha is different from Prakriti? It cannot be said that Prakriti is making this statement, because it is unconscious; nor can it be said that Purusha is making this statement, because it has no connection with Prakriti. It cannot even know that Prakriti exists. But, if it knows that Prakriti exists, it has established a relationship already; its independence has failed. And, if the establishment of relationship has taken place, the nature of this relationship between the two has to be explained, a difficulty which was initially envisaged in understanding or studying the materialistic philosophy. How difficult things are! The solution does not seem to be anywhere in sight.

Well, there were geniuses who thought they solved this problem by the introduction of a cementing link between the two. This is what Patanjali has done, for instance, in his Yoga Sutras, though in his novel way. The Yoga of Patanjali is based on the metaphysics of Samkhya, but it differs from Samkhya in one important point. It was realised that it was not possible to get on with these two utterly different principles Purusha and Prakriti. The difficulty is obvious, as was mentioned. How could anyone think of these two things, unless there is a thinker of the two things? The person, the element, or the principle, that is aware of the existence of Prakriti on this side, and Purusha on the other, remains as a third thing altogether. Such a witnessing principle cannot belong to either Purusha, or to Prakriti. But the Samkhya says that there cannot be a third thing. For it, there are only two things. The Samkhya defeats itself by positing two utterly different principles.

The metaphysical aspect of Yoga as propounded by Patanjali, felt the difficulty, and, so, there was an introduction of a deity called Isvara in the Yoga philosophy. This word Isvara should not be associated with any devotional systems, or the God of the religions. Patanjali's Isvara is quite a different thing altogether. It is a pure 'deus ex machina', a contrivance that has been made necessary to explain the relationship between one thing and another. Patanjali had his own arguments for positing the existence of Isvara. It was felt that there cannot be only two parties in a case. If there are two camps opposing each other, who will decide the case? People do good, people do bad. There is a reaction set up to every action, good or bad. Now, who will dispense justice in the form of a nemesis that is set up by actions, good or bad? A client cannot be a judiciary. It cannot be Purusha; it cannot be Prakriti. There is a third element necessary, a judge in a court. This judge was introduced by Patanjali, and he called this judge Isvara.

Who willed originally, who laid down this law that one body of matter should pull another body of matter in a particular manner? Why should there be this law of gravitation at all? If Purusha can be independent of Purusha and vice versa, one body of matter can also be independent of another body. Everything can be independent of, or different from, everything else. Why not? What is the difficulty? But, that does not seem to be the case. There is mutual action and reaction seen among bodies. It is called gravitation in the physical field, and something else in the social and psychological realms. This cannot be explained unless there is a third element which is the causative factor behind the two parties which sets up action on the one side, and reaction on the other side. One part sets up action, another part sets up reaction. There must be a connection between the two. Otherwise, there is no reaction of action. This is a fact that is observed in life. So, the third principle is called Isvara, in the language of the Yoga of Patanjali. We may call this central judiciary in the cosmos by any name we like.

This seems to be a tentative solution, but we will find that Patanjali has landed us in a problem again. It must be noted that the greatest problem of philosophy is the problem of 'relation'. If this cannot be explained, nothing is explained in life. Instead of solving the difficulty of explaining the relation between two things, Patanjali seems to create another problem of a need to find a relation between three things, Prakriti, Purusha and Isvara. How are they related to each other? Are they identical, or different? Now, again, the problem of identity and difference arises.

Philosophy seems to have failed. The analysis of the world leads us nowhere. The problems remain as problems, unanswered. Not a single question has been answered satisfactorily. That is where one stands, after a little bit of preliminary thought philosophically.